The MSL Curiosity rover investigated dark, Mn-P-enriched nodules in shallow lacustrine/fluvial sediments at the Groken site in Glen Torridon, Gale Crater, Mars. Applying all relevant information from the rover, the nodules are interpreted as pseudomorphs after original crystals of vivianite, (Fe2+,Mn2+)3(PO4)2 center dot 8H2O, that cemented the sediment soon after deposition. The nodules appear to have flat faces and linear boundaries and stand above the surrounding siltstone. ChemCam LIBS (laser-induced breakdown spectrometry) shows that the nodules have MnO abundances approximately twenty times those of the surrounding siltstone matrix, contain little CaO, and have SiO2 and Al2O3 abundances similar to those of the siltstone. A deconvolution of APXS analyses of nodule-bearing targets, interpreted here as representing the nodules' non-silicate components, shows high concentrations of MnO, P2O5, and FeO and a molar ratio P/Mn = 2. Visible to near-infrared reflectance of the nodules (by ChemCam passive and Mastcam multispectral) is dark and relatively flat, consistent with a mixture of host siltstone, hematite, and a dark spectrally bland material (like pyrolusite, MnO2). A drill sample at the site is shown to contain minimal nodule material, implying that analyses by the CheMin and SAM instruments do not constrain the nodules' mineralogy or composition. The fact that the nodules contain P and Mn in a small molar integer ratio, P/Mn = 2, suggests that the nodules contained a stoichiometric Mn-phosphate mineral, in which Fe did (i.e., could) not substitute for Mn. The most likely such minerals are laueite and strunzite, Mn2+Fe3+2(PO4)2(OH)2 center dot 8H2O and -6H2O, respectively, which occur on Earth as alteration products of other Mn-bearing phosphates including vivianite. Vivianite is a common primary and diagenetic precipitate from low-oxygen, P-enriched waters. Calculated phase equilibria show Mn-bearing vivianite could be replaced by laueite or strunzite and then by hematite plus pyrolusite as the system became more oxidizing and acidic. These data suggest that the nodules originated as vivianite, forming as euhedral crystals in the sediment, enclosing sediment grains as they grew. After formation, the nodules were oxidized-first to laueite/strunzite yielding the diagnostic P/Mn ratio, and then to hematite plus an undefined Mn oxy-hydroxide (like pyrolusite). The limited occurrence of these Mn-Fe-P nodules, both in space and time (i.e., stratigraphic position), suggests a local control on their origin. By terrestrial analogies, it is possible that the nodules precipitated near a spring or seep of Mn-rich water, generated during alteration of olivine in the underlying sediments.

The infrared spectral characteristics of organic-rich acid residues prepared from Ryugu samples returned by the JAXA Hayabusa2 mission generally match those from unheated carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, but the residues from Ryugu are richer in methyl and methylene functional groups and have higher CH2/CH3 ratios. Moreover, two distinct outlier carbonaceous phases are found; one with spectral characteristics of N-H functional groups, likely amides, and a second phase containing less nitrogen. Such infrared characteristics of Ryugu organic matter might indicate the pristine nature of the freshly collected samples and reflect the near-surface chemistry in the parent asteroid.

The exact nature of the luminous fast blue optical transient AT 2018cow is still debated. In this first of a two-paper series, we present a detailed analysis of three Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations of AT 2018cow covering & SIM;50-60 days post-discovery in combination with other observations throughout the first two months and derive significantly improved constraints of the late thermal properties. By modeling the spectral energy distributions (SEDs), we confirm that the UV-optical emission over 50-60 days was still a smooth blackbody (i.e., optically thick) with a high temperature (T BB & SIM; 15,000 K) and small radius (R BB & LSIM; 1000 R & ODOT;). Additionally, we report for the first time a break in the bolometric light curve: the thermal luminosity initially declined at a rate of L BB & PROP; t -2.40 but faded much faster at t -3.06 after day 13. Reexamining possible late-time power sources, we disfavor significant contributions from radioactive decay based on the required 56Ni mass and lack of UV line blanketing in the HST SEDs. We argue that the commonly proposed interaction with circumstellar material may face significant challenges in explaining the late thermal properties, particularly the effects of the optical depth. Alternatively, we find that continuous outflow/wind driven by a central engine can still reasonably explain the combination of a receding photosphere, optically thick and rapidly fading emission, and intermediate-width lines. However, the rapid fading may have further implications on the power output and structure of the system. Our findings may support the hypothesis that AT 2018cow and other "Cow-like transients" are powered mainly by accretion onto a central engine.

In this second of a two-paper series, we present a detailed analysis of three Hubble Space Telescope observations taken & SIM;2-4 yr post-discovery, examining the evolution of a UV-bright underlying source at the precise position of AT 2018cow. While observations at & SIM;2-3 yr post-discovery revealed an exceptionally blue (L & nu; & PROP; & nu; 1.99) underlying source with relatively stable optical brightness, fading in the near-UV was observed at year 4, indicating flattening in the spectrum (to L & nu; & PROP; & nu; 1.64). The resulting spectral energy distributions can be described by an extremely hot but small blackbody, and the fading may be intrinsic (cooling) or extrinsic (increased absorption). Considering possible scenarios and explanations, we disfavor significant contributions from stellar sources and dust formation, based on the observed color and brightness. By comparing the expected power and the observed luminosity, we rule out interaction with known radio-producing circumstellar material (CSM) as well as magnetar spin down with B & SIM; 1015 G as possible power sources, though we cannot rule out the possible existence of a denser CSM component (e.g., a previously ejected hydrogen envelope) or a magnetar with B & LSIM; 1014 G. Finally, we find that a highly inclined precessing accretion disk can reasonably explain the color, brightness, and evolution of the underlying source. However, a major uncertainty in this scenario is the mass of the central black hole (BH), as both stellar-mass and intermediate-mass BHs face notable challenges that cannot be explained by our simple disk model, and further observations and theoretical works are needed to fully constrain the nature of this underlying source.

The isotopic analysis of moderately volatile elements such as K have gained significant interest in recent years as they possess the potential to help us better understand solar system formation. Even so, the precise K isotopic composition of CI chondrites, the most chemically primitive chondrite, has remained elusive. As the K elemental composition of CI chondrites matches well with the solar photosphere, it is possible that their K isotopic composition represents the solar system initial value. Here, we investigate the CI chondrite K isotopic composition in order to determine the precise CI chondrite, and thus possibly solar system initial, & delta;41K value. In addition, we investigate the K isotope compositions of several other chondrite groups, evaluate all available chondrite K isotope data together, and use these data along with data from a range of other isotope systems to assess if nucleosynthetic variations, volatility related processes, or parent body processes can best explain the range of isotope variations. The & delta;41K composition of all nine CI chondrite pieces analyzed in this study show limited variation, ranging from -0.29%o to -0.17%o. When combined with the previous CI analysis, an overall mean CI & delta;41K value of -0.21 & PLUSMN; 0.05%o (2SE) is obtained. This K isotope composition is distinct from the Bulk Silicate Earth value of -0.43 & PLUSMN; 0.17%o (2SD), heavier than almost all other chondrite groups, and may represent the solar system initial K isotope composition. When comparing all chondrites broadly, ordinary chondrites show the lightest mean K isotope composition of -0.76 & PLUSMN; 0.06%o (H = -0.71 & PLUSMN; 0.12%o, L = -0.77 & PLUSMN; 0.04%o, LL = -0.81 & PLUSMN; 0.12%o), enstatite chondrites the middle composition of -0.39 & PLUSMN; 0.11%o (EH = -0.34 & PLUSMN; 0.05%o, EL = -0.45 & PLUSMN; 0.20%o), and carbonaceous chondrites the heaviest composition of -0.31 & PLUSMN; 0.08%o. For the carbonaceous chondrite groups CK (-0.42 & PLUSMN; 0.11%o), CR (-0.46 & PLUSMN; 0.05%o), and CV (-0.38 & PLUSMN; 0.07%o) chondrites show lighter & delta;41K compositions compared to CO (-0.20 & PLUSMN; 0.10%o), CM (-0.23 & PLUSMN; 0.11%o), and CI (-0.21 & PLUSMN; 0.05%o) chondrites. When these K isotope group averages are compared against the averages for other mass-dependent moderately volatile element isotope systems (& delta;87Rb, & delta;66Zn, & delta;71Ga, & delta;128Te) and mass-independent isotope systems (& epsilon;54Cr, & epsilon;64Ni, & epsilon;50Ti, & UDelta;17O, & epsilon;40K, and & epsilon;66Zn,), a range of correlations are observed. Across all chondrite groups & delta;41K shows correlations with & delta;87Rb, & delta;66Zn, and & delta;71Ga, and correlations with & epsilon;54Cr, & epsilon;64Ni, & epsilon;50Ti, & epsilon;40K, and & epsilon;66Zn. When comparing the CCs only, correlations are observed between & delta;41K and all four of the other moderately volatile elements assessed, while the mass-independent isotope systems show no strong correlations. Regarding the K isotope variations, these observations, along with other textural and chemical data, can be best explained by inherited isotopic variations form different precursor reservoirs (the cause of which is difficult to conclusively determine, though most likely related to the NC-CC dichotomy), and volatility related fractionation processes for the carbonaceous chondrite groups (most likely due to component mixing).

Coral reefs are highly diverse ecosystems of immense ecological, economic, and aesthetic importance built on the calcium-carbonate based skeletons of stony corals. The formation of these skeletons is threatened by increasing ocean temperatures and acidification, and a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved may assist efforts to mitigate the effects of such anthropogenic stressors. In this study, we focused on the role of the predicted bicarbonate transporter SLC4 gamma, which was suggested in previous studies to be a product of gene duplication and to have a role in coral-skeleton formation. Our comparative-genomics study using 30 coral species and 15 outgroups indicates that SLC4 gamma is present throughout the stony corals, but not in their non-skeleton-forming relatives, and apparently arose by gene duplication at the onset of stony coral evolution. Our expression studies show that SLC4 gamma, but not the closely related and apparently ancestral SLC4 gamma, is highly upregulated during coral development coincident with the onset of skeleton deposition. Moreover, we show that juvenile coral polyps carrying CRISPR/Cas9-induced mutations in SLC4 gamma are defective in skeleton formation, with the severity of the defect in individual animals correlated with their frequencies of SLC4 gamma mutations. Taken together, the results suggest that the evolution of the stony corals involved the neofunctionalization of the newly arisen SLC4 gamma for a unique role in the provision of concentrated bicarbonate for calcium-carbonate deposition. The results also demonstrate the feasibility of reverse-genetic studies of ecologically important traits in adult corals.