A variety of secondary mineralogies has been detected on Mars from both orbiters and landers, indicating widespread aqueous alteration of the crust. Many of these locales exhibit sulfates, which in some cases imply acidic fluids. At present, there are few constraints on the paleoenvironmental conditions that existed during formation of the widespread and diverse classes of secondary minerals on Mars. We investigated hydrothermal systems at three active acidic volcanic systems in Nicaragua, including Cerro Negro, Momotombo, and Telica. The recently erupted materials are similar in composition to the Martian crust and are undergoing extensive acid-sulfate alteration predominately in gas-dominated settings (fumaroles). We characterized the secondary mineralogy and local variables, including temperature, pH, rock and gas composition, and fluid-rock ratio. We find that these environmental parameters exhibit strong controls on the alteration mineralogy. The environments studied include pH that ranged from -1 to 6, temperatures from ambient to hundreds of degrees Celsius, and fumaroles to hot springs. The hottest and most acidic systems contained sulfur, silica, and minor gypsum, while moderately acidic and cooler fumaroles included abundant silica, gypsum and other hydrated sulfates, and phyllosilicates. A setting with a higher fluid-rock ratio but similar temperature and acidity was dominated by phyllosilicates and, to a lesser degree, sulfates. The characterization of aqueous alteration of basalts under a variety of environmental conditions provides a conceptual framework for interpretation of similar relic environments on Mars. Finally, while identification of phyllosilicates on Mars is generally thought to require neutral to alkaline fluids, we documented significant formation of these minerals in the acidic volcanic systems.

To interpret modern-day unrest at Yellowstone Caldera, timescales leading up to its most common type of eruption-effusively emplaced rhyolite-must be quantified. This work takes advantage of the different rates of elemental diffusion in clinopyroxene to calculate the magmatic timescales of events preceding eruption of the ca. 262 ka Scaup Lake rhyolite, which ended similar to 220,000 years of dormancy in this high-silica system. Here, we present diffusion chronometry timescales accounting for various sources of error and using multiple elements from NanoSIMS measurements of clinopyroxene rims. We combine these with previously published timescales from sanidine rims to better understand the relationship between timescales captured by different minerals from the same volcanic event. We show that timescales archived by rims of different types of phenocrysts from the same lava may not be concomitant. The Scaup Lake rhyolite appears to have undergone several rejuvenation events over similar to 5000 years before its eruption, and the last events (<40 years before eruption) were not recorded by clinopyroxene. This work highlights the importance of using multiple methods to determine a timescale for a given process. Although many studies use Fe-Mg zonation from BSE images to calculate diffusive timescales alone, we show that these are maximums or overestimates if not referenced to the appropriate initial condition. Instead, we demonstrate that diffusion chronometry conducted with multiple elements in multiple mineral phases with rigorous error propagation produces the most robust and accurate temporal results. In addition, we recommend that diffusion chronometry results not be interpreted in isolation, but rather in a holistic petrological approach that includes consideration of the relevant phase equilibria and crystal growth and dissolution rates.

We report the results from a deep HST NICMOS H-band imaging survey of a carefully selected sample of 33 luminous, late-stage galactic mergers at z < 0.3. This program is part of QUEST (Quasar/ULIRG Evolutionary Study). Signs of a recent galactic interaction are seen in all of these objects, including all seven IR-excess Palomar-Green (PG) QSOs in the sample. Unsuspected double nuclei are detected in five ULIRGs. A detailed two-dimensional analysis of the surface brightness distributions in these objects indicates that the great majority (81%) of the single-nucleus systems show a prominent early-type morphology. However, low-surface-brightness exponential disks are detected on large scales in at least four of these sources. The hosts of "warm'' ( IRAS 25 to 60 mu m flux ratio f(25)/f(60) > 0: 2), AGN-like systems are of early type and have less pronounced merger-induced morphological anomalies than the hosts of cool systems with LINER or H II region - like nuclear optical spectral types. The host sizes and luminosities of the seven PG QSOs in our sample are statistically indistinguishable from those of the ULIRG hosts. The hosts of ULIRGs and PG QSOs lie close to the locations of intermediate-size (similar to 1L* -2L*) spheroids in the photometric projection of the fundamental plane of ellipticals, although there is a tendency for the ULIRGs with small hosts to be brighter than normal spheroids. The black hole masses derived from the galaxy host luminosities imply sub-Eddington accretion rates for all objects in the sample.

We present a study of the nearby Seyfert galaxyNGC 1068 usingmid- and far- infrared data acquired with the IRAC, IRS, and MIPS instruments aboard the Spitzer Space Telescope. The images show extensive 8 and 24 mu m emission coinciding with star formation in the inner spiral approximately 1500 (1 kpc) from the nucleus and a bright complex of star formation similar to 47" (3 kpc) southwest of the nucleus. The brightest 8 mu m polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emission regions coincide remarkably well with knots observed in an H alpha image. Strong PAH features at 6.2, 7.7, 8.6, and 11.3 mu m are detected in IRS spectrameasured at numerous locations inside, within, and outside the inner spiral. The IRAC colors and IRS spectra of these regions rule out dust heated by the active galactic nucleus (AGN) as the primary emission source; the spectral energy distributions are dominated by starlight and PAH emission. The equivalent widths and flux ratios of the PAH features in the inner spiral are generally consistent with conditions in a typical spiral galaxy interstellar medium (ISM). Interior to the inner spiral, the influence of the AGN on the ISM is evident via PAH flux ratios indicative of a higher ionization parameter and a significantly smallermean equivalent width than observed in the inner spiral. The brightest 8 and 24 mu m emission peaks in the disk of the galaxy, even at distances beyond the inner spiral, are located within the ionization cones traced by [OIII]/H beta, and they are also remarkably well aligned with the axis of the radio jets. Although it is possible that radiation from the AGN may directly enhance PAH excitation or trigger the formation of OB stars that subsequently excite PAH emission at these locations in the inner spiral, the orientation of collimated radiation from the AGN and star formation knots in the inner spiral could be coincidental. The brightest PAH- and 24 mu m-emitting regions are also located precisely where two spiral arms of molecular gas emerge from the ends of the inner stellar bar; this is consistent with kinematic models that predict maxima in the accumulation and compression of the ISM, where gas gets trapped within the inner Lindblad resonance of a large stellar bar that contains a smaller, weaker bar.

We report the results from a deep Hubble Space Telescope (HST) NICMOS H-band imaging survey of 28 z < 0.3 QSOs from the Palomar-Green (PG) sample. This program is part of QUEST (Quasar/ULIRG Evolution Study) and complements a similar set of data on 26 highly nucleated ULIRGs presented in Paper I. Our analysis indicates that the fraction of QSOs with elliptical hosts is higher among QSOs with undetected far-infrared (FIR) emission, small infrared excess (L-IR/L-B < 10), and luminous hosts. The hosts of FIR-faint QSOs show a tendency to have less pronounced merger-induced morphological anomalies and larger QSO-to-host luminosity ratios on average than the hosts of FIR-bright QSOs, consistent with late-merger evolution from FIR- bright to FIR- faint QSOs. The spheroid sizes (similar to 0.3-5.5 kpc) and total host luminosities (similar to 0.6-7.2 L-H*) of the radio-quiet PG QSOs in our sample are statistically indistinguishable from the ULIRG hosts presented in Paper I, while those of radio-loud PG QSOs are systematically larger and more luminous. ULIRGs and PG QSOs with elliptical hosts fall near, but not exactly on, the fundamental plane of inactive spheroids. We confirm the systematic trend noted in Paper I for objects with small (less than or similar to 2 kpc) spheroids to be up to similar to 1 mag brighter than inactive spheroids. The host colors and wavelength dependence of their sizes support the idea that these deviations are at least in part due to non-nuclear star formation. However, the amplitudes of these deviations depend mainly on host sizes, and possibly on infrared excess, but not on merger phase, QSO-to-host luminosity ratio, optical spectral type, active galactic nucleus fractional contribution to the bolometric luminosity, or host R-H color. Taken at face value (i.e., no correction for extinction or the presence of a young stellar population), the H-band spheroid-host luminosities imply black hole masses similar to(5-200) x 10(7) M-circle dot and sub-Eddington mass accretion rates for both QSOs and ULIRGs. These results are compared with published black hole mass estimates derived from other methods.

The long-standing prediction that hydrogen can assume a metallic state under high pressure, combined with arguments put forward more recently that this state might even be superconducting up to high temperatures, continues to spur tremendous research activities toward the experimental realization of metallic hydrogen. These efforts have however so far been impeded by the enormous challenges associated with the exceedingly large required pressure. Hydrogen-dense materials, of the MH4 form ( where M can be, e. g., Si, Ge, or Sn) or of the MH3 form ( with M being, e. g., Al, Sc, Y, or La), allow for the rather exciting opportunity to carry out a proxy study of metallic hydrogen and associated high-temperature superconductivity at pressures within the reach of current techniques. At least one experimental report indicates that a superconducting state might have been observed already in SiH4, and several theoretical studies have predicted superconductivity in pressurized hydrogen-rich materials; however, no systematic dependence on the applied pressure has yet been identified so far. In the present work, we have used first-principles methods in an attempt to predict the superconducting critical temperature (T-c) as a function of pressure ( P) for three metal-hydride systems of the MH3 form, namely ScH3, YH3, and LaH3. By comparing the obtained results, we are able to point out a general trend in the T-c-dependence on P. These gained insights presented here are likely to stimulate further theoretical studies of metallic phases of hydrogen-dense materials and should lead to new experimental investigations of their superconducting properties.

The Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey (GOALS) consists of a complete sample of 202 luminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs) selected from the IRAS Revised Bright Galaxy Sample (RBGS). The galaxies span the full range of interaction stages, from isolated galaxies to interacting pairs to late stage mergers. We present a comparison of the UV and infrared properties of 135 galaxies in GOALS observed by GALEX and Spitzer. For interacting galaxies with separations greater than the resolution of GALEX and Spitzer (similar to 2 ''-6 ''), we assess the UV and IR properties of each galaxy individually. The contribution of the FUV to the measured star formation rate (SFR) ranges from 0.2% to 17.9%, with a median of 2.8% and a mean of 4.0% +/- 0.4%. The specific star formation rate (SSFR) of the GOALS sample is extremely high, with a median value (3.9 x 10(-10) yr(-1)) that is comparable to the highest SSFRs seen in the Spitzer Infrared Nearby Galaxies Survey sample. We examine the position of each galaxy on the IR excess-UV slope (IRX-beta) diagram as a function of galaxy properties, including IR luminosity and interaction stage. The LIRGs on average have greater IR excesses than would be expected based on their UV colors if they obeyed the same relations as starbursts with L(IR) < 10(11) L(circle dot) or normal late-type galaxies. The ratio of L(IR) to the value one would estimate from the IRX-beta relation published for lower luminosity starburst galaxies ranges from 0.2 to 68, with a median value of 2.7. A minimum of 19% of the total IR luminosity in the RBGS is produced in LIRGs and ultraluminous infrared galaxies with red UV colors (beta > 0). Among resolved interacting systems, 32% contain one galaxy which dominates the IR emission while the companion dominates the UV emission. Only 21% of the resolved systems contain a single galaxy which dominates both wavelengths.

Ca-III, the first superconducting calcium phase under pressure, was identified as simple-cubic (sc) by previous X-ray diffraction (XRD) experiments. In contrast, all previous theoretical calculations showed that sc had a higher enthalpy than many proposed structures and had an imaginary (unstable) phonon branch. By using our newly developed submicrometer high-pressure single-crystal XRD, cryogenic high-pressure XRD, and theoretical calculations, we demonstrate that Ca-III is neither exactly sc nor any of the lower-enthalpy phases, but sustains the sc-like, primitive unit by a rhombohedral distortion at 300 K and a monoclinic distortion below 30 K. This surprising discovery reveals a scenario that the high-pressure structure of calcium does not go to the zero-temperature global enthalpy minimum but is dictated by high-temperature anharmonicity and low-temperature metastability fine-tuned with phonon stability at the local minimum.

Noble metals adopt close-packed structures at ambient pressure and rarely undergo structural transformation at high pressures. Platinum (Pt) is normally considered to be unreactive and is therefore not expected to form hydrides under pressure. We predict that platinum hydride (PtH) has a lower enthalpy than its constituents solid Pt and molecular hydrogen at pressures above 21.5 GPa. PtH transforms to a hexagonal close-packed or face-centered cubic (fcc) structure between 70 and 80 GPa. Linear response calculations indicate that PtH is a superconductor at these pressures with a critical temperature of about 10-25 K. These findings help to shed light on recent observations of pressure-induced metallization and superconductivity in hydrogen-rich materials. We show that the formation of fcc noble metal hydrides under pressure is common and examine the possibility of superconductivity in these materials.

Materials with very high hydrogen density have attracted considerable interest due to a range of motivations, including the search for chemically precompressed metallic hydrogen and hydrogen storage applications. Using high-pressure synchrotron X-ray diffraction technique and theoretical calculations, we have discovered a new rhodium dihydride (RhH2) with high volumetric hydrogen density (163.7 g/L). Compressing rhodium in fluid hydrogen at ambient temperature, the fcc rhodium metal absorbs hydrogen and expands unit-cell volume by two discrete steps to form NaCl-typed fcc rhodium monohydride at 4 GPa and fluorite-typed fcc RhH2 at 8 GPa. RhH2 is the first dihydride discovered in the platinum group metals under high pressure. Our low-temperature experiments show that RhH2 is recoverable after releasing pressure cryogenically to 1 bar and is capable of retaining hydrogen up to 150 K for minutes and 77 K for an indefinite length of time.