A key obstacle to developing a satisfying theory of galaxy evolution is the difficulty in extending analytic descriptions of early structure formation into full non-linearity, the regime in which galaxy growth occurs. Extant techniques, though powerful, are based on approximate numerical methods whose Monte Carlo-like nature hinders intuition building. Here, we develop a new solution to this problem and its empirical validation. We first derive closed-form analytic expectations for the evolution of fixed percentiles in the real-space cosmic density distribution, averaged over representative volumes observers can track cross sectionally. Using the Lagrangian forms of the fluid equations, we show that percentiles in delta - the density relative to the median - should grow as delta(t) proportional to delta(alpha)(0) t(beta), where alpha 2 and beta 2 for Newtonian gravity at epochs after the overdensities transitioned to non-linear growth. We then use 9.5 square degress of Carnegie-Spitzer-IMACS Redshift Survey data to map galaxy environmental densities over 0.2 < z < 1.5 (similar to 7 Gyr) and infer alpha = 1.98 +/- 0.04 and beta = 2.01 +/- 0.11 - consistent with our analytic prediction. These findings - enabled by swapping the Eulerian domain of most work on density growth for a Lagrangian approach to real-space volumetric averages - provide some of the strongest evidence that a lognormal distribution of early density fluctuations indeed decoupled from cosmic expansion to grow through gravitational accretion. They also comprise the first exact, analytic description of the non-linear growth of structure extensible to (arbitrarily) low redshift. We hope these results open the door to new modelling of, and insight-building into, galaxy growth and its diversity in cosmological contexts.

We present the first detections of the mean flux of the optical extragalactic background Light (EBL) at 3000, 5500, and 8000 Angstrom, derived from coordinated data sets taken at Las Campanas Observatory and with HST. In addition to detections in all three bands, we identify the minimum surface brightness contributed by resolved galaxies (23 < V < 28 AB mag) using a novel method of aperture photometry to which these data are uniquely suited. By comparing these results to the surface brightness from resolved galaxies measured using standard methods of galaxy photometry, we identify systematic errors in the results of faint galaxy photometry and place Limits on the EBL flux originating from undetected sources.

We present the first detection of the mean Aux of the optical extragalactic background light (EBL) at 3000, 5500, and 8000 Angstrom, derived from coordinated data sets from HST and Las Campanas Observatory. To isolate the extragalactic component, we have measured and subtracted the flux from foreground sources explicitly. In addition to detections in all three bands, we identify the minimum surface brightness contributed by resolved galaxies (23 < V < 28 AB mag) using a non-standard method of aperture photometry to which these data are uniquely suited. Individually resolved galaxies account for similar to 30% of the mean EEL coming from galaxies fainter than V = 23 AB mag. Taking into account the effective surface brightness detection limits of the deepest galaxy counts, and the results of LSB surveys at low redshift, the EEL we detect can be explained by galaxy populations already cataloged.

We present optical (B and R) and infrared (K-s) images and photometry for a sample of 49 extremely late-type, edge-on disk galaxies selected from the Flat Galaxy Catalog of Karenchentsev et al. Our sample was selected to include galaxies with particularly large axial ratios, increasing the likelihood that the galaxies in the sample are truly edge-on. We have also concentrated the sample on galaxies with low apparent surface brightness in order to increase the representation of intrinsically low surface brightness galaxies. Finally, the sample was chosen to have no apparent bulges or optical warps so that the galaxies represent undisturbed, "pure disk" systems. The resulting sample forms the basis for a much larger spectroscopic study designed to place constraints on the physical quantities and processes that shape disk galaxies. The imaging data presented in this paper have been painstakingly reduced and calibrated to allow accurate surface photometry of features as faint as 30 mag arcsec(-2) in B and 29 mag arcsec(-2) in R on scales larger than 10". Because of limitations in sky subtraction and flat-fielding, the infrared data can reach only to 22.5 mag arcsec(-2) in K-s, on comparable scales. As part of this work, we have developed a new method for quantifying the reliability of surface photometry, which provides useful diagnostics for the presence of scattered light, optical emission from infrared cirrus, and other sources of nonuniform sky backgrounds.

We are developing a method for measuring the detailed chemical composition and evolutionary history of extragalactic star clusters from high resolution spectra of their integrated light as one would from spectra of individual stars. In this paper, we show high signal-to-noise ratio echelle spectra of the integrated light of two Galactic globular clusters and equivalent-quality spectra of individual stars in those clusters in order to briefly illustrate some subtleties of the analysis method.

We present optical echelle spectra of four gamma-ray burst (GRB) afterglows ( GRB 050730, GRB 050820, GRB 051111, and GRB 060418) discovered during the first 1.5 yr of operation of the Swift satellite and localized by either the Swift telescope or follow-up ground-based imaging. We analyze the spectra to derive accurate column density measurements for the transitions arising in the interstellar medium( ISM) of the GRB host galaxies. These measurements can be used to constrain the physical properties of the ISM, including the metallicity, dust-to-gas ratio, ionization state, and chemical abundances of the gas. We also present measurements of the strong Mg II systems in the GRB afterglow spectra. With the publication of this paper, we provide the first data release of echelle afterglow spectra by the GRAASP collaboration to the general community.

We describe the detailed chemical abundance analysis of a high-resolution (R similar to 35,000), integrated-light (IL), spectrum of the core of the Galactic globular cluster 47 Tuc, obtained using the du Pont echelle at Las Campanas. We develop an abundance analysis strategy that can be applied to spatial unresolved extragalactic clusters. We have computed abundances for Na, Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Y, Zr, Ba, La, Nd, and Eu. For an analysis with the known color-magnitude diagram (CMD) for 47 Tuc we obtain a mean [Fe/H] value of -0.75 +/- 0.026 +/- 0.045 dex (random and systematic error), in good agreement with the mean of five recent high-resolution abundance studies, at -0.70 dex. Typical random errors on our mean [X/Fe] ratios are 0.07-0.10 dex, similar to studies of individual stars in 47 Tuc. Na and Al appear enhanced, perhaps due to proton burning in the most luminous cluster stars. Our IL abundance analysis with an unknown CMD employed theoretical Teramo isochrones; however, we apply zero-point abundance corrections to account for the factor of 3 underprediction of stars at the AGB bump luminosity. While line diagnostics alone provide only mild constraints on the cluster age ( ruling out ages younger than similar to 2 Gyr), when theoretical IL B-V colors are combined with metallicity derived from the Fe I lines, the age is constrained to 10-15 Gyr and we obtain [Fe/H] = -0.70 +/- 0.021 +/- 0.052 dex. We find that Fe I line diagnostics may also be used to constrain the horizontal-branch morphology of an unresolved cluster. Lastly, our spectrum synthesis of 5.4 million TiO lines indicates that the 7300-7600 angstrom TiO window should be useful for estimating the effect of M giants on the IL abundances, and important for clusters more metal-rich than 47 Tuc.

m We report the first detailed chemical abundances for five globular clusters (GCs) in M31 from high-resolution (R similar to 25,000) spectroscopy of their integrated light (IL). These GCs are the first in a larger set of clusters observed as part of an ongoing project to study the formation history of M31 and its GC population. The data presented here were obtained with the HIRES echelle spectrograph on the Keck I telescope and are analyzed using a new IL spectra analysis method that we have developed. In these clusters, we measure abundances for Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Y, and Ba, ages >= 10 Gyr, and a range in [Fe/H] of -0.9 to -2.2. As is typical of Milky Way GCs, we find these M31 GCs to be enhanced in the a-elements Ca, Si, and Ti relative to Fe. We also find [Mg/Fe] to be low relative to other [alpha/Fe], and [Al/Fe] to be enhanced in the IL abundances. These results imply that abundances of Mg, Al (and likely O, Na) recovered from IL do display the inter- and intra-cluster abundance variations seen in individual Milky Way GC stars, and that special care should be taken in the future in interpreting low-or high-resolution IL abundances of GCs that are based on Mg-dominated absorption features. Fe-peak and the neutron-capture elements Ba and Y also follow Milky Way abundance trends. We also present high-precision velocity dispersion measurements for all five M31 GCs, as well as independent constraints on the reddening toward the clusters from our analysis.

We present detailed chemical abundances of Fe, Ca and Ba for 17 globular clusters (GCs) in 5 Local Group dwarf galaxies: NGC 205, NGC 6822, WLM, the SMC and LMC. These abundances are part of a larger sample of over 20 individual elements measured in GCs in these galaxies using a new analysis method for high resolution, integrated light spectra. Our analysis also provides age and stellar population constraints. The existence of GCs in dwarf galaxies with a range of ages implies that there were episodes of rapid star formation (SF) throughout the history of these galaxies; the abundance ratios of these clusters suggest that the duration of these burst varied considerably from galaxy to galaxy. We find evolution of Fe, Ca, and Ba with age in the LMC, SMC, and NGC 6822 that is consistent with extended, lower-efficiency SF between bursts, with an increasing contribution of low-metallicity AGB ejecta at late times. Our sample of GCs in NGC 205 and WLM are predominantly old and metal-poor with high [Ca/Fe] ratios, implying that the early history of these galaxies was marked by consistently high SF rates.

In this paper, we refine our method for the abundance analysis of high-resolution spectroscopy of the integrated light of unresolved globular clusters (GCs). This method was previously demonstrated for the analysis of old (>10 Gyr) Milky Way (MW) GCs. Here, we extend the technique to young clusters using a training set of nine GCs in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Depending on the signal-to-noise ratio of the data, we use 20-100 Fe lines per cluster to successfully constrain the ages of old clusters to within a similar to 5 Gyr range, the ages of similar to 2 Gyr clusters to a 1-2 Gyr range, and the ages of the youngest clusters (0.05-1Gyr) to a similar to 200 Myr range. We also demonstrate that we can measure [Fe/H] in clusters with any age less than 12 Gyr with similar or only slightly larger uncertainties (0.1-0.25 dex) than those obtained for old MW GCs (0.1 dex); the slightly larger uncertainties are due to the rapid evolution in stellar populations at these ages. In this paper, we present only Fe abundances and ages. In the next paper in this series, we present our complete analysis of similar to 20 elements for which we are able to measure abundances. For several of the clusters in this sample, there are no high-resolution abundances in the literature from individual member stars; our results are the first detailed chemical abundances available. The spectra used in this paper were obtained at Las Campanas with the echelle on the du Pont Telescope and with the MIKE spectrograph on the Magellan Clay Telescope.