We have determined the Wadati-Benioff Zone seismicity and state of stress of the subducting Nazca slab beneath central and southern Peru using data from three recently deployed local seismic networks. Our relocated hypocenters are consistent with a flat slab geometry that is shallowest near the Nazca Ridge, and changes from steep to normal without tearing to the south. These locations also indicate numerous abrupt along-strike changes in seismicity, most notably an absence of seismicity along the projected location of subducting Nazca Ridge. This stands in stark contrast to the very high seismicity observed along the Juan Fernandez ridge beneath central Chile where, a similar flat slab geometry is observed. We interpret this as indicative of an absence of water in the mantle beneath the overthickened crust of the Nazca Ridge. This may provide important new constraints on the conditions required to produce intermediate depth seismicity. Our focal mechanisms and stress tensor inversions indicate dominantly down-dip extension, consistent with slab pull, with minor variations that are likely due to the variable slab geometry and stress from adjacent regions. We observe significantly greater variability in the P-axis orientations and maximum compressive stress directions. The along strike change in the orientation of maximum compressive stress is likely related to slab bending and unbending south of the Nazca Ridge. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The lithospheric structure of the Southeastern United States is a product of earlier episodes of continental collision and breakup. The region is located in the interior of the North American Plate, away from active plate margins. However, there is ongoing tectonism in the region with multiple zones of seismicity, uplifting arches, and Cenozoic intraplate volcanism. The mechanisms controlling this activity and the state of stress remain enigmatic. Two important factors are plate strength and preexisting, inherited structures. Here we present new tomographic images of the upper mantle beneath the Southeastern United States, revealing large-scale structural variations in the upper mantle. Examples include the relatively thick lithospheric mantle of stable North America that abruptly thins beneath the Paleozoic Appalachian orogeny, and the slow upper mantle of the Proterozoic Reelfoot rift. Our results also indicate fast seismic velocity patterns that can be interpreted as ongoing lithospheric foundering. This provides a viable explanation for seismicity, uplifting, and young intraplate volcanism. We postulate that not only tectonic inheritance but also continuing lithospheric foundering may control the ongoing activity of the region long after it became a passive margin. Based on distinct variations in the geometry and thickness of the lithospheric mantle and foundered lithosphere, we propose that piecemeal delamination has occurred beneath the region throughout the Cenozoic, removing a significant amount of reworked/deformed mantle lithosphere. Ongoing lithospheric foundering beneath the eastern margin of stable North America explains significant variations in thickness of lithospheric mantle across the former Grenville deformation front.

The lithospheric structure of the Southeastern United States is a product of earlier episodes of continental collision and breakup. The region is located in the interior of the North American Plate, away from active plate margins. However, there is ongoing tectonism in the region with multiple zones of seismicity, uplifting arches, and Cenozoic intraplate volcanism. The mechanisms controlling this activity and the state of stress remain enigmatic. Two important factors are plate strength and preexisting, inherited structures. Here we present new tomographic images of the upper mantle beneath the Southeastern United States, revealing large-scale structural variations in the upper mantle. Examples include the relatively thick lithospheric mantle of stable North America that abruptly thins beneath the Paleozoic Appalachian orogeny, and the slow upper mantle of the Proterozoic Reelfoot rift. Our results also indicate fast seismic velocity patterns that can be interpreted as ongoing lithospheric foundering. This provides a viable explanation for seismicity, uplifting, and young intraplate volcanism. We postulate that not only tectonic inheritance but also continuing lithospheric foundering may control the ongoing activity of the region long after it became a passive margin. Based on distinct variations in the geometry and thickness of the lithospheric mantle and foundered lithosphere, we propose that piecemeal delamination has occurred beneath the region throughout the Cenozoic, removing a significant amount of reworked/deformed mantle lithosphere. Ongoing lithospheric foundering beneath the eastern margin of stable North America explains significant variations in thickness of lithospheric mantle across the former Grenville deformation front.

The Central Andean Plateau (15 degrees-27 degrees S) is a high plateau in excess of 3 km elevation, associated with thickened crust along the western edge of the South America plate, in the convergent margin between the subducting Nazca plate and the Brazilian craton. We have calculated receiver functions using seismic data from a recent portable deployment of broadband seismometers in the Bolivian orocline (12 degrees-21 degrees S) region and combined them with waveforms from 38 other stations in the region to investigate crustal thickness and crust and mantle structures. Results from the receiver functions provide a more detailed map of crustal thickness than previously existed, and highlight mid-crustal features that match well with prior studies. The active volcanic arc and Altiplano have thick crust with Moho depths increasing from the central Altiplano (65 km) to the northern Altiplano (75 km). The Eastern Cordillera shows large along strike variations in crustal thickness. Along a densely sampled SW-NE profile through the Bolivian orocline there is a small region of thin crust beneath the high peaks of the Cordillera Real where the average elevations are near 4 km, and the Moho depth varies from 55 to 60 km, implying the crust is undercompensated by similar to 5 km. In comparison, a broader region of high elevations in the Eastern Cordillera to the southeast near similar to 20 degrees S has a deeper Moho at similar to 65-70 km and appears close to isostatic equilibrium at the Moho. Assuming the modern-day pattern of high precipitation on the flanks of the Andean plateau has existed since the late Miocene, we suggest that climate induced exhumation can explain some of the variations in present day crustal structure across the Bolivian orocline. We also suggest that south of the orocline at similar to 20 degrees S, the thicker and isostatically compensated crust is due to the absence of erosional exhumation and the occurrence of lithospheric delamination. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The Central Andean Plateau (15 degrees-27 degrees S) is a high plateau in excess of 3 km elevation, associated with thickened crust along the western edge of the South America plate, in the convergent margin between the subducting Nazca plate and the Brazilian craton. We have calculated receiver functions using seismic data from a recent portable deployment of broadband seismometers in the Bolivian orocline (12 degrees-21 degrees S) region and combined them with waveforms from 38 other stations in the region to investigate crustal thickness and crust and mantle structures. Results from the receiver functions provide a more detailed map of crustal thickness than previously existed, and highlight mid-crustal features that match well with prior studies. The active volcanic arc and Altiplano have thick crust with Moho depths increasing from the central Altiplano (65 km) to the northern Altiplano (75 km). The Eastern Cordillera shows large along strike variations in crustal thickness. Along a densely sampled SW-NE profile through the Bolivian orocline there is a small region of thin crust beneath the high peaks of the Cordillera Real where the average elevations are near 4 km, and the Moho depth varies from 55 to 60 km, implying the crust is undercompensated by similar to 5 km. In comparison, a broader region of high elevations in the Eastern Cordillera to the southeast near similar to 20 degrees S has a deeper Moho at similar to 65-70 km and appears close to isostatic equilibrium at the Moho. Assuming the modern-day pattern of high precipitation on the flanks of the Andean plateau has existed since the late Miocene, we suggest that climate induced exhumation can explain some of the variations in present day crustal structure across the Bolivian orocline. We also suggest that south of the orocline at similar to 20 degrees S, the thicker and isostatically compensated crust is due to the absence of erosional exhumation and the occurrence of lithospheric delamination. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Two arrays of broad-band seismic stations were deployed in the north central Andes between 8 degrees and 21 degrees S, the CAUGHT array over the normally subducting slab in northwestern Bolivia and southern Peru, and the PULSE array over the southern part of the Peruvian flat slab where the Nazca Ridge is subducting under South America. We apply finite frequency teleseismic P-and S-wave tomography to data from these arrays to investigate the subducting Nazca plate and the surrounding mantle in this region where the subduction angle changes from flat north of 14 degrees S to normally dipping in the south. We present new constraints on the location and geometry of the Nazca slab under southern Peru and northwestern Bolivia from 95 to 660 km depth. Our tomographic images show that the Peruvian flat slab extends further inland than previously proposed along the projection of the Nazca Ridge. Once the slab re-steepens inboard of the flat slab region, the Nazca slab dips very steeply (similar to 70 degrees) from about 150 km depth to 410 km depth. Below this the slab thickens and deforms in the mantle transition zone. We tentatively propose a ridge-parallel slab tear along the north edge of the Nazca Ridge between 130 and 350 km depth based on the offset between the slab anomaly north of the ridge and the location of the re-steepened Nazca slab inboard of the flat slab region, although additional work is needed to confirm the existence of this feature. The subslab mantle directly below the inboard projection of the Nazca Ridge is characterized by a prominent low-velocity anomaly. South of the Peruvian flat slab, fast anomalies are imaged in an area confined to the Eastern Cordillera and bounded to the east by well-resolved low-velocity anomalies. These low-velocity anomalies at depths greater than 100 km suggest that thick mantle lithosphere associated with underthrusting of cratonic crust from the east is not present. In northwestern Bolivia a vertically elongated fast anomaly under the Subandean Zone is interpreted as a block of delaminating lithosphere.

Two arrays of broad-band seismic stations were deployed in the north central Andes between 8 degrees and 21 degrees S, the CAUGHT array over the normally subducting slab in northwestern Bolivia and southern Peru, and the PULSE array over the southern part of the Peruvian flat slab where the Nazca Ridge is subducting under South America. We apply finite frequency teleseismic P-and S-wave tomography to data from these arrays to investigate the subducting Nazca plate and the surrounding mantle in this region where the subduction angle changes from flat north of 14 degrees S to normally dipping in the south. We present new constraints on the location and geometry of the Nazca slab under southern Peru and northwestern Bolivia from 95 to 660 km depth. Our tomographic images show that the Peruvian flat slab extends further inland than previously proposed along the projection of the Nazca Ridge. Once the slab re-steepens inboard of the flat slab region, the Nazca slab dips very steeply (similar to 70 degrees) from about 150 km depth to 410 km depth. Below this the slab thickens and deforms in the mantle transition zone. We tentatively propose a ridge-parallel slab tear along the north edge of the Nazca Ridge between 130 and 350 km depth based on the offset between the slab anomaly north of the ridge and the location of the re-steepened Nazca slab inboard of the flat slab region, although additional work is needed to confirm the existence of this feature. The subslab mantle directly below the inboard projection of the Nazca Ridge is characterized by a prominent low-velocity anomaly. South of the Peruvian flat slab, fast anomalies are imaged in an area confined to the Eastern Cordillera and bounded to the east by well-resolved low-velocity anomalies. These low-velocity anomalies at depths greater than 100 km suggest that thick mantle lithosphere associated with underthrusting of cratonic crust from the east is not present. In northwestern Bolivia a vertically elongated fast anomaly under the Subandean Zone is interpreted as a block of delaminating lithosphere.

The Central Andean Plateau, the second-highest plateau on Earth, overlies the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the central portion of South America. The origin of the high topography remains poorly understood, and this puzzle is intimately tied to unanswered questions about processes in the upper mantle, including possible removal of the overriding plate lithosphere and interaction with the flow field that results from the driving forces associated with subduction. Observations of seismic anisotropy can provide important constraints on mantle flow geometry in subduction systems. The interpretation of seismic anisotropy measurements in subduction settings can be challenging, however, because different parts of the subduction system may contribute, including the overriding plate, the mantle wedge above the slab, the slab itself, and the deep upper mantle beneath the slab. Here we present measurements of shear wave splitting for core phases (SKS, SKKS, PKS, and sSKS), local S, and source-side teleseismic S phases that sample the upper mantle beneath southern Peru and northern Bolivia, relying mostly on data from the CAUGHT experiment. We find evidence for seismic anisotropy within most portions of the subduction system, although the overriding plate itself likely makes only a small contribution to the observed delay times. Average fast orientations generally trend roughly trench-parallel to trench-oblique, contradicting predictions from the simplest two-dimensional flow models and olivine fabric scenarios. Our measurements suggest complex, layered anisotropy beneath the northern portion of the Central Andean Plateau, with significant departures from a two-dimensional mantle flow regime.

The Central Andean Plateau, the second-highest plateau on Earth, overlies the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the central portion of South America. The origin of the high topography remains poorly understood, and this puzzle is intimately tied to unanswered questions about processes in the upper mantle, including possible removal of the overriding plate lithosphere and interaction with the flow field that results from the driving forces associated with subduction. Observations of seismic anisotropy can provide important constraints on mantle flow geometry in subduction systems. The interpretation of seismic anisotropy measurements in subduction settings can be challenging, however, because different parts of the subduction system may contribute, including the overriding plate, the mantle wedge above the slab, the slab itself, and the deep upper mantle beneath the slab. Here we present measurements of shear wave splitting for core phases (SKS, SKKS, PKS, and sSKS), local S, and source-side teleseismic S phases that sample the upper mantle beneath southern Peru and northern Bolivia, relying mostly on data from the CAUGHT experiment. We find evidence for seismic anisotropy within most portions of the subduction system, although the overriding plate itself likely makes only a small contribution to the observed delay times. Average fast orientations generally trend roughly trench-parallel to trench-oblique, contradicting predictions from the simplest two-dimensional flow models and olivine fabric scenarios. Our measurements suggest complex, layered anisotropy beneath the northern portion of the Central Andean Plateau, with significant departures from a two-dimensional mantle flow regime.

To constrain crustal structures in the southern Appalachians and the suture zone with the Gondwanan-affinity Suwannee terrane, we applied the 2-D generalized Radon transform wavefield migration method to the scattered incident P wavefield recorded by the EarthScope Southeastern Suture of the Appalachian Margin Experiment and adjacent Transportable Array stations. We resolve the root of thickened crust beneath the high topography of the Blue Ridge Mountains and estimate its density contrast with the mantle to be only 10420kg/m(3). A weak velocity contrast across the crustal root Moho is observed and may be related to an ongoing crustal delamination event, possibly contributing to local tectonic rejuvenation. Beneath the Suwannee terrane, we confirm prior observations of a gently south-southeastward dipping crustal suture, indicating the terminal collision of Laurentia and Gondwana involved several hundred kilometers of overthrusting.