Context. The current period is conducive to exploring our Solar System's origins with recent and future space sample return missions, which provide invaluable information from known Solar System asteroids and comets The Hayabusa2 mission of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) recently brought back samples from the surface of the Ryugu carbonaceous asteroid.Aims. We aim to identify the different forms of chemical composition of organic matter and minerals that constitute these Solar System primitive objects, to shed light on the Solar System's origins.Methods. In this work, we recorded infrared (IR) hyper-spectral maps of whole-rock Ryugu asteroid samples at the highest achievable spatial resolution with a synchrotron in the mid-IR (MIR). Additional global far-IR (FIR) spectra of each sample were also acquired.Results. The hyper-spectral maps reveal the variability of the functional groups at small scales and the intimate association of phyl-losilicates with the aliphatic components of the organic matter present in Ryugu. The relative proportion of column densities of the identified IR functional groups (aliphatics, hydroxyl + interlayer and/or physisorbed water, carbonyl, carbonates, and silicates) giving access to the composition of the Ryugu samples is estimated from these IR hyper-spectral maps. Phyllosilicate spectra reveal the presence of mixtures of serpentine and saponite. We do not detect anhydrous silicates in the samples analysed, at the scales probed. The carbonates are dominated by dolomite. Aliphatics organics are distributed over the whole samples at the micron scale probed with the synchrotron, and intimately mixed with the phyllosilicates. The aromatic C=C contribution could not be safely deconvolved from OH in most spectra, due to the ubiquitous presence of hydrated minerals. The peak intensity ratios of the organics methylene to methyl (CH2/CH3) of the Ryugu samples vary between about 1.5 and 2.5, and are compared to the ratios in chondrites from types 1 to 3. Overall, the mineralogical and organic characteristics of the Ryugu samples show similarities with those of CI chondrites, although with a noticeably higher CH2/CH3 in Ryugu than generally measured in C1 chondrites collected on Earth, and possibly a higher carbonate content.

Skeletal muscles can regenerate throughout life time from resident Pax7-expressing (Pax7+) muscle stem cells (MuSCs)1-3. Pax7+ MuSCs are normally quiescent and localized at a niche in which they are attached to the extracellular matrix basally and compressed against the myofiber apically3-5. Upon muscle injury, MuSCs lose apical contact with the myofiber and re-enter cell cycle to initiate regeneration. Prior studies on the physical niche of MuSCs focused on basal elasticity6,7, and significance of the apical force exerted on MuSCs remains unaddressed. Here we simulate MuSCs’ mechanical environment in vivo by applying physical compression to MuSCs’ apical surface. We demonstrate that compression drives activated MuSCs back to a quiescent stem cell state, even when seeded on different basal elasticities. By mathematical modeling and manipulating cell tension, we conclude that low overall tension combined with high edge tension generated by compression lead to MuSC quiescence. We further show that apical compression results in up-regulation of Notch downstream genes, accompanied by increased levels of nuclear Notch. The compression induced nuclear Notch is ligand-independent, as it does not require the canonical S2 cleavage of Notch by ADAM10/17. Our results fill the knowledge gap on the role of apical tension for MuSC fate. Implications to how stem cell fate and activity are interlocked with the mechanical integrity of its resident tissue are discussed.

The 2021 La Palma eruption provided an unpreceded opportunity to test the relationship between earthquake hypocenters and the location of magma reservoirs. We performed density measurements on CO2-rich fluid in-clusions (FIs) hosted in olivine crystals that are highly sensitive to pressure via calibrated Raman spectroscopy. This technique can revolutionize our knowledge of magma storage and transport during an ongoing eruption, given that it can produce precise magma storage depth constraints in near real time with minimal sample prep-aration. Our FIs have CO2 recorded densities from 0.73 to 0.98 g/cm3, translating into depths of 15 to 27 km, which falls within the reported deep seismic zone recording the main melt storage reservoir.

Organic matter constitutes a key reservoir in global elemental cycles. However, our understanding of the dynamics of organic matter and its accumulation remains incomplete. Seemingly disparate hypotheses have been proposed to explain organic matter accumulation: the slow degradation of intrinsically recalcitrant substrates, the depletion to concentrations that inhibit microbial consumption, and a dependency on the consumption capabilities of nearby microbial populations. Here, using a mechanistic model, we develop a theoretical framework that explains how organic matter predictably accumulates in natural environments due to biochemical, ecological, and environmental factors. The new framework subsumes the previous hypotheses. Changes in the microbial community or the environment can move a class of organic matter from a state of functional recalcitrance to a state of depletion by microbial consumers. The model explains the vertical profile of dissolved organic carbon in the ocean and connects microbial activity at subannual timescales to organic matter turnover at millenial timescales. The threshold behavior of the model implies that organic matter accumulation may respond nonlinearly to changes in temperature and other factors, providing hypotheses for the observed correlations between organic carbon reservoirs and temperature in past earth climates.

Remineralization of organic matter by heterotrophic organisms regulates the biological sequestration of carbon, thereby mediating atmospheric CO2. While surface nutrient supply impacts the elemental ratios of primary production, stoichiometric control by remineralization remains unclear. Here we develop a mechanistic description of remineralization and its stoichiometry in a marine microbial ecosystem model. The model simulates the observed elemental plasticity of phytoplankton and the relatively constant, lower C:N of heterotrophic biomass. In addition, the model captures the observed decreases in DOC:DON and the C:N remineralization ratio with depth for more labile substrates, which are driven by a switch in the dominant source of labile DOM from phytoplankton to heterotrophic biomass. Only a model version with targeted remineralization of N-rich components is able to simulate the observed profiles of preferential remineralization of DON relative to DOC and the elevated C:N of bulk DOM. The model suggests that more labile substrates are associated with C-limited heterotrophic growth and not with preferential remineralization, while more recalcitrant substrates are associated with growth limited by processing rates and with preferential remineralization. The resulting patterns of variable remineralization stoichiometry mediate the extent to which a proportional increase in carbon production resulting from changes in phytoplankton stoichiometry can increase the efficiency of the biological pump. Results emphasize the importance of understanding the physiology of both phytoplankton and heterotrophs for anticipating changes in biologically driven ocean carbon storage.

Marine microbes form the base of ocean food webs and drive ocean biogeochemical cycling. Yet little is known about how microbial populations will evolve due to global change-driven shifts in ocean dynamics. Understanding adaptive timescales is critical where long-term trends (e.g. warming) are coupled to shorter-term advection dynamics that move organisms rapidly between ecoregions. Here we investigated the interplay between physical and biological timescales using a model of adaptation and an eddy-resolving ocean circulation climate model. Two criteria ( and {beta}) were identified that relate physical and biological timescales and determine the timing and nature of adaptation. Genetic adaptation was impeded in highly variable regimes (<1) but promoted in more stable environments (>1). An evolutionary trade-off emerged where greater short-term transgenerational effects (low-{beta}-strategy) enabled rapid responses to environmental fluctuations but delayed genetic adaptation, while fewer short-term transgenerational effects (high-{beta}-strategy) allowed faster genetic adaptation but inhibited short-term responses. Our results suggest that organisms with faster growth rates are better positioned to adapt to rapidly changing ocean conditions and that more variable environments will favor a bet-hedging, low-{beta}-strategy. Understanding the relationship between evolutionary and physical timescales is critical for robust predictions of future microbial dynamics.

Anoxic marine zones (AMZs) are host to anaerobic metabolisms that drive losses of bioavailable nitrogen from the ocean. The discovery of active nitrite-oxidising bacteria (NOB), long thought to be obligately aerobic, in AMZs has altered our perception of how nitrogen cycles in these oxygen-deficient waters. Yet, why NOB succeed in AMZs remains unclear. Here, we show that obligately aerobic NOB can thrive alongside aerobic microheterotrophs in AMZs via infrequent intrusions of oxygen. Ecological theory, biogeochemical modelling and metagenome-based maximum growth rate estimates suggest that NOB are opportunists that take advantage of periodic oxygen intrusions to rapidly accumulate biomass. Rather than harsh, AMZs prone to oxygen intrusions appear optimal for NOB, whose abundance and activity peaks in a goldilocks zone of periodic oxygen and high nitrite supply. Our results recast the intermediate disturbance hypothesis to AMZs and highlight how the nitrogen cycle relies on dynamic coexistence of aerobic and anaerobic metabolisms.

Nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, is produced mostly from aquatic ecosystems, to which algae substantially contribute. However, mechanisms of N2O production by photosynthetic organisms are poorly described. Here, we show that the green microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii reduces NO into N2O using the photosynthetic electron transport. Through the study of C. reinhardtii mutants deficient in flavodiiron proteins (FLVs) or in a cytochrome p450 (CYP55), we show that FLVs contribute to NO reduction in the light, while CYP55 operates in the dark. Furthermore, NO reduction by both pathways is restricted to Chlorophytes, organisms particularly abundant in ocean N2O-producing hotspots. Our results provide a mechanistic understanding of N2O production in eukaryotic phototrophs and represent an important step toward a comprehensive assessment of greenhouse gas emission by aquatic ecosystems.One sentence summaryGreen microalgae produce N2O using flavodiiron proteins in the light and a cytochrome P450 NO reductase in the dark.

Photosynthesis in cyanobacteria, green algae, and basal land plants is protected against excess reducing pressure on the photosynthetic chain by flavodiiron proteins (FLV) that dissipate photosynthetic electrons by reducing O2. In these organisms, the genes encoding FLV are always conserved in the form of a pair of two-type isozymes (FLVA and FLVB) that are believed to function in O2 photo-reduction as a heterodimer. While coral symbionts (dinoflagellates of the family Symbiodiniaceae) are the only algae to harbor FLV in photosynthetic red plastid lineage, only one gene is found in transcriptomes and its role and activity remain unknown. Here, we characterized the FLV genes in Symbiodiniaceae and found that its coding region is composed of tandemly repeated FLV sequences. By measuring the O2-dependent electron flow and P700 oxidation, we suggest that this atypical FLV is active in vivo. Based on the amino-acid sequence alignment and the phylogenetic analysis, we conclude that in coral symbionts, the gene pair for FLVA and FLVB have been fused to construct one coding region for a hybrid enzyme, which presumably occurred when or after both genes were inherited from basal green algae to the dinoflagellate. Immunodetection suggested the FLV polypeptide to be cleaved by a post-translational mechanism, adding it to the rare cases of polycistronic genes in eukaryotes. Our results demonstrate that FLV are active in coral symbionts with genomic arrangement that is unique to these species. The implication of these unique features on their symbiotic living environment is discussed.

Photosynthetic organisms use sunlight as the primary energy source to fix CO2. However, in the environment, light energy fluctuates rapidly and often exceeds saturating levels for periods ranging from seconds to hours, which can lead to detrimental effects for cells. Safe dissipation of excess light energy occurs primarily by non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) processes. In the model green microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, photoprotective NPQ is mostly mediated by pH-sensing light-harvesting complex stress-related (LHCSR) proteins and the redistribution of light-harvesting antenna proteins between the photosystems (state transition). Although each component underlying NPQ has been documented, their relative contributions to the dynamic functioning of NPQ under fluctuating light conditions remains unknown. Here, by monitoring NPQ throughout multiple high light-dark cycles with fluctuation periods ranging from 1 to 10 minutes, we show that the dynamics of NPQ depend on the frequency of light fluctuations. Mutants impaired in the accumulation of LHCSRs (npq4, lhcsr1, and npq4lhcsr1) showed significantly less quenching during illumination, demonstrating that LHCSR proteins are responsible for the majority of NPQ during repetitive exposure to high light fluctuations. Activation of NPQ was also observed during the dark phases of light fluctuations, and this was exacerbated in mutants lacking LHCSRs. By analyzing 77K chlorophyll fluorescence spectra and chlorophyll fluorescence lifetimes and yields in a mutant impaired in state transition, we show that this phenomenon arises from state transition. Finally, we quantified the contributions of LHCSRs and state transition to the overall NPQ amplitude and dynamics for all light periods tested and compared those with cell growth under various periods of fluctuating light. These results highlight the dynamic functioning of photoprotection under light fluctuations and open a new way to systematically characterize the photosynthetic response to an ever-changing light environment. One sentence summary: The roles of LHCSR and STT7 in NPQ vary with the light fluctuation period and duration of light fluctuation.